The British In India (1599–1947) In Detail
Introduction
The British dominated the Indian subcontinent under the British Raj from 1599 until 1947. The rule is often referred to as direct rule or Crown rule in India. In common parlance, the area under British rule was referred to as India. This region included areas directly managed by the UK, known as British India, as well as territories ruled by native authorities but subject to British sovereignty, known as the princely states. The region was known as the Indian Empire, though not formally.
Rise of British
• Francis Drake's circumnavigation of the globe in 1580 and the English victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588 gave the British a new sense of adventure, motivating sailors to travel to the East. As word of the enormous riches the Portuguese were making in Eastern trade spread, English business people yearned for a piece of the action.
• The 'Merchant Adventurers,' a group of English merchants, established a company in 1599 as a result. The English travelled to India in search of textiles and other trading goods as the Dutch started to concentrate more on the East Indies.
English East India Company
• An English company to conduct business with the East was established in 1599 by a group of traders known as the Merchant Adventurers.
• The queen gave it permission and exclusive trading privileges with the East in 1600. Mughal monarch Jahangir gave Captain Hawkins the imperial Farman so he could start businesses on the western side.
• Later, Sir Thomas Roe was granted permission to build factories throughout the Mughal Empire.
• Shares were held by affluent businesspeople and members of the British nobility when it first started as the "Governor and Company of Merchants of London dealing into the East Indies."
• Although it started as a business, it paved the way for the foundation of the British Raj in India. Its main exports included cotton, indigo dye, silk, salt, saltpeter, opium, and tea. A part of gunpowder was saltpeter.
• Along the Coromandel Coast in Machilipatnam (current-day Andhra Pradesh), the first commercial factory in southern India was founded in 1610.
• Warren Hastings was appointed as the first Governor-General of Bengal by the Regulating Act of 1773, which also gave him control over the other two presidencies. This legislation brought about considerable administrative reforms for the company.
• In order to oversee and manage the company's Indian holdings, more acts were passed in the years before to 1853. The company's careless actions and corruption in India were a major factor in the Revolt of 1857.
• The Government of India Act 1858, which transferred authority to the British government, also signaled the end of the company's rule over India. The government received all of the company's assets as well as its military and administrative operations.
Timeline of East India Company
• 1600 • The East India Company was founded
• 1609 • William Hawkins arrives at Jahangir's court.
• 1611 • Captain Middleton gains permission from the Mughal governor of Surat to trade there.
• 1613 • The East India Company established a permanent factory in Surat.
• 1615 • Sir Thomas Roe, King James I's ambassador, arrives to Jahangir's court
• 1618 • The embassy had obtained two Farman’s (one from the emperor and one from Prince Khurram) affirming unfettered commerce and freedom from inland tolls.
• 1616 • The company opened its first plant in the south, in Masulipatnam.
• 1632 • The Company receives the golden farman from the Sultan of Golconda, assuring the safety and success of their commerce.
• 1633 • The Company opened its first plant in east India, in Hariharpur, Balasore (Odisha).
• 1639 • The Company obtains a lease on Madras from a native ruler
• 1651 • The Company is granted authorization to trade at Hooghly (Bengal).
• 1662 • Bombay is handed to the British King, Charles II, as a dowry for marrying a Portuguese lady (Catherine of Braganza).
• 1667 • Aurangzeb offers the English a farman for commerce in Bengal.
• 1691 • The Company receives an imperial order to continue trading in Bengal in exchange for a yearly payment of Rs 3,000.
• 1717 • The Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar publishes a farman known as the Magna Carta of the Company, which grants the Company a slew of trade advantages.
From Traders To Rulers
• In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted the East India Company a charter granting it the sole authority to conduct business with the East. From that point on, the East India Company was the only trade entity in England that could compete.
• However, the royal charter did not prevent other European countries from entering the Eastern markets.
• The Dutch were also looking into trading opportunities in the Indian Ocean, but the Portuguese already had a footing and a stronghold on the western coast of India. The French craftsmen arrived on the scene quickly.
• The problem was that each company wanted to purchase the identical products. As a result, eliminating competitors was the only way for trade enterprises to prosper.
• Market protection required trade businesses to engage in acrimonious disputes.
• Trade involved the use of weapons, and trading posts were fortified to protect them.
• On the banks of the Hugli River, the first English factory was founded in 1651.
• It started erecting a fort around the community of merchants and traders, which was close to the factory, in 1696.
• The firm persuaded Aurangzeb, the Mughal Emperor, to issue a Farman granting it duty-free trade.
• Only the Company had been given permission by Aurangzeb's Farman to do duty-free business. Murshid Quli Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, denounced this attitude.
• The Bengal nawabs and other regional rulers of the time proclaimed their sovereignty and independence in the wake of Aurangzeb's death.
• The Nawabs refused to give the Company any concessions and demanded significant payments in exchange for the right to trade, the capacity to issue money, and the opportunity to strengthen its defenses.
• According to the Company, the commerce could only prosper if the tariffs were eliminated. It was also believed that it needed to expand its colonies, buy villages, and upgrade its forts in order to encourage trade.
• Conflicts resulted from the rising tensions, and the fabled Battle of Plassey served as their climax.
Battle of Plassey
• On June 23, 1757, the Battle of Plassey took place at Palashi in Bengal.
• The English position in Bengal was strengthened by Robert Clive's massive army's arrival in Calcutta from Madras.
• At Plassey in 1757, Robert Clive was ultimately given leadership of the Company's forces fighting Siraj Ud Daulah.
• Mir Jafar, one of Siraj Ud Daulah's commanders, had been persuaded to cooperate by Clive's promise to make him Nawab after Siraj Ud Daulah's defeat.
• Because it was the English East India Company's first significant victory in India, the Battle of Plassey gained notoriety.
• The East India Company's primary objective has since changed from trade to territorial expansion.
• The Mughal emperor designated the Company as Diwan of the Bengal area in 1765. The Diwani gave the Company access to Bengal's large revenue sources.
Battle of Buxar (1764)
• On October 22, 1764, the Battle of Buxar was fought between a British force commanded by Hector Munro and a coalition of Indian monarchs from Bengal, Awadh, and the Mughal Empire.
• This crucial struggle resulted in the British dominating India for the following 183 years. On October 22, 1764, English forces commanded by Major Hector Munro defeated the combined forces of Mir Kasim, the Nawab of Awadh, and Shah Alam II at the battle of Buxar.
• Despite being brief, the English counteroffensive against Mir Kasim was successful. The English's victory against both the Mughal Emperor of India and the Nawab of Bengal was what made this war significant.
• With aspirations to dominate the entire country, the victory made the English a significant force in northern India.
Administration of British
• A crucial player in the Company's ascent to power was Warren Hastings, who served as governor general from 1773 until 1785.
• By the time of his reign, the Company had established control over not only Bengal but also Bombay and Madras, which were known as Presidencies.
• Each was under the control of a Governor. The Governor-General held the position of highest authority within the government.
• Several administrative reforms were put in place by the first governor general, Warren Hastings, particularly in the judicial sector.
• The Sadar Nizamat Adalat, a court of appeal, and a new Supreme Court were both formed in Calcutta by the Regulating Act of 1773.
• The most significant person in an Indian district was the Collector, who was in charge of collecting income and taxes as well as keeping things calm and orderly with the assistance of judges, police officers, and other authorities.
The Reasons For British Dominance In India
• The British took roughly a century to increase and bolster their power in India.
• The English used a mixture of political, military, and other tactics over the span of a century and a half to finally establish themselves as India's rulers.
• In order to assert their authority over various kingdoms and, eventually, to solidify their own dominion over all of India, the English used both military and administrative tactics.
Superior military strategy, weapons
• The Indian weaponry were slower and had a shorter range than the English weapons, which included muskets and cannons.
• Lacking originality, Indian monarchs' military leaders and armies reduced themselves to copying those of the English.
Regular Salary and Military Discipline
• The English Company established a regular system of compensation payment and enforced a strict code of discipline to ensure the allegiance of the commanders and troops.
Disciplinary Action and a Just Selection Process
• Instead of being given authority based on hereditary, caste, or tribal ties, the Company commanders and men were chosen because of their dependability and talent.
• They adhered to a strict code of conduct and had a thorough understanding of the objectives of their campaigns.
Brilliant Leadership
• Unusual leadership qualities were demonstrated by Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, Munro, Marquess of Dalhousie, among others.
• The English also had a long list of secondary leaders who fought for the cause and honor of their country rather than for the leader, such Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, and Arthur Wellesley.
Solid Financial Support
• The company's profits allowed it to pay out huge dividends to its shareholders and pay for the English wars in India.
• Additionally, England's trade with the rest of the world was generating enormous wealth.
Nationalist Pride
• The British, who were economically successful and proud of their national pride, encountered the "weak, divided-among-themselves Indians," who had any sense of coherent political nationalism.
• The success of the English Company was also a result of the Indians' lack of a materialistic viewpoint.
Uprising of 1857
• The Revolt of 1857 was a significant uprising in India between 1857 and 1858 against the British East India Company's administration, which served as the British Crown's royal power.
• Like other revolutions, the 1857 insurrection had its roots in the social, economic, and political realities of everyday life for the Indian population, which spanned across all classes and sectors.
• The Revolt of 1857 was finally ignited by the occurrence of greased cartridges.
• There was a notion that the cartridges for the new Enfield guns were greased with pig and cow fat.
• Before loading these cannons, the sepoys had to nibble off the paper from the cartridges.
• By removing the troublesome cartridges, Lord Canning tried to make things right, but the damage had already been done. There were several places where there was rioting.
• Even though the uprising was unsuccessful in its goal, it did plant the seeds of Indian nationalism.
Indian National Congress's Ascent
• A new middle class that was distributed throughout India had emerged by 1880.
• A growing sense of brotherhood among its members was also generated by the dual stimuli of inspiration and wrath.
• A.O. Hume, a retired English government official, brought together prominent philosophers of the era to give the concept its final form.
• Indians who were politically aware wanted to create a national organization that would represent their political and economic objectives, and this is how the Indian National Congress came to be.
• Its objectives were to strengthen and promote a sense of national unity among all citizens, irrespective of their province, caste, or religion.
• Indian nationalism needs to be carefully maintained and promoted.
• As a result, the INC would serve as a safety valve or as a buffer organization.
Bengal's Partition In 1950
• Bengal served as the core of Indian nationalism in the early 1900s as it gained strength.
• Lord Curzon, the Viceroy (1899–1905), wanted to "dethrone Calcutta" from its position as the center from whence the Congress Party ruled Bengal and all of India.
• The notion of dividing Bengal in half has been circulating since December 1903.
• The Congress party employed moderate strategies from 1903 through 1905, including petitions, letters, speeches, rallies, and press campaigns. To mobilize public opinion against the partition in both India and England was the aim.
• Viceroy Curzon 1905 publicly announced the British Government's plan to divide Bengal on July 19. Activation of the division took place on October 16, 1905.
• The division was meant to promote a different kind of division, one based on religion.
• The Congress was to be pitted against Muslim communalists. Dacca, according to Curzon, would replace the current capital.
• This resulted in the Indians being highly dissatisfied. Many believed this to be part of the British government's "Divide and Rule" strategy.
• The Swadeshi movement, which sought self-sufficiency, was sparked as a result.
British Policy: Inc
• Since the National Congress's inception, the British had been leery of it, but they weren't hostile.
• In 1888, Viceroy Dufferin made fun of INC, referring to it as a "microscopic minority" that mostly represented the wealthy.
• British views towards INC that had previously been frightening started to change when the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements got underway. The emergence of a violent nationalist movement alarmed the British.
• The implementation of the new "carrot-and-stick" policy. A three-pronged approach was used. It was referred to as a suppression-repression-conciliation programme.
• Extremists were put down, somewhat only. The intention is to terrify the moderates.
• The British also made an effort to placate the Moderates by making promises and concessions in exchange for their distancing themselves from the Extremists.
• On the other side, the British have consistently worked to suppress extremists.
Indian Nationalist Movements
|
National Movements |
Leaders |
Significance |
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Gadar Movement (1914) |
Bhagwan Singh, Har Dayal |
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Home rule Movement ( 1916-18) |
Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak |
|
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Rowlatt Satyagraha ( 1919 ) |
Mahatma Gandhi |
|
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Jallianwala bagh Massacre ( 1919) |
|
|
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Non Cooperation movement (1920) |
Mahatma Gandhi |
|
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Khilafat Movement (1919-24) |
Shoukat Ali and Mohammad Ali |
|
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Chauri Chaura incident (1922) |
Mahatma Gandhi |
|
Simon Commission (1927)
• To ascertain if India was prepared for additional constitutional reforms, the Simon Commission, which was entirely white, was established on November 8, 1927.
• The absence of any Indian representation on the Simon Commission led to a boycott by the Indian National Congress. There were protests in many different places.
• Lala Lajpat Rai, the most well-known Punjabi leader and a hero of the turbulent times, was assassinated in Lahore.
• He passed away as a result of his wounds in November 1928.
• Bhagat Singh and his allies sought to get revenge for Lala Lajpat Rai's murder. They murdered Saunders, a white police officer, in December 1928.
• Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose rose to prominence as the movement's leaders during the boycott of the Simon Commission.
Constitution-Drafting Attempt In The Nehru Report
• The All Parties Conference committee that produced the Constitution was headed by Motilal Nehru, and Jawaharlal Nehru served as secretary. There were nine people on this committee altogether.
• The committee turned in The Nehru Report in 1928, which was essentially a report advocating for dominion status and a federal government for the constitution of India.
• The idea of distinct communal electorates, which served as the basis for past constitutional revisions, was also rejected by the Nehru Report.
• At the Centre and in provinces where they were a numerical minority, Muslims would be given preference however, in provinces where they were the majority, they would not.
Movement For Civil Disobedience (1930)
• There was only one option left when Lord Irwin ignored Gandhi's ultimatum, which listed the essential demands in the form of 11 points. That option was civil disobedience. Salt served as Gandhi's main tool for civil disobedience.
• On April 6, 1930, Gandhi began the Civil Disobedience Movement by picking up a handful of salt. This movement would go on to become unmatched in the history of the Indian national movement for the level of popular engagement it spurred throughout the whole nation.
• The Red Shirts, sometimes referred to as the Khudai Khidmatgars and commanded by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, played a significant role in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Quit India Movement (1942)
• At the All India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay during World War II, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement to end British control in India.
• Throughout this struggle, the common people of the region shown unmatched bravery and militancy.
• The repression they experienced, however, was the harshest ever used against a national movement.
• During the historic discussion in August at the Gowalia Tank in Bombay, Gandhiji was adamant about complete emancipation and an end to the British piecemeal approach.
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
• The 3 June Plan, also called the Mountbatten Plan, was agreed upon by representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh community. This was the last plan of action to gain independence.
• On moral grounds, the British government sanctioned the division of British India.
• The rest of the world would be given to succeeding governments.
• Both nations enjoy independence and sovereignty.
• The succeeding governments had the freedom to create their own constitutions.
• Based on two important considerations, including proximity to Pakistan and popular demand, the Princely States were given the choice between joining Pakistan or India.
• The Mountbatten plan led to the passage of the India Independence Act in 1947.
1947's Indian Independence Act
• The Indian Independence Act of 1947, which divided British India into the Dominion of India (after known as the Republic of India) and the Dominion of Pakistan (later to become the Islamic Republic of Pakistan), was approved by the British Parliament.
• On July 18, 1947, this Act received the Royal Assent. India and Pakistan achieved independence on August 15, 1947.
• India continues to observe August 15 as Independence Day, whereas Pakistan observes August 14 in accordance with decisions made by their respective cabinets.
British Influences In India
• The British opened up new employment options, especially for people from lower castes. With these chances, they were more likely to experience upward social mobility.
• India's modern middle class was formed during British rule, and members of this class went on to lead Indian industry in the decades following independence.
• Construction of essential infrastructure: The British government built hospitals, schools, and, most significantly, railways. Of course, nothing was done to enhance the lives of the native Indians instead, it was everything done to facilitate their exploitation.
• In any case, these infrastructures laid the foundation for India's ascent to economic supremacy in the world.
• Steamships, telegraphs, and railroads were only a few of the new ideas and technologies that had a profound impact on the Indian subcontinent's economy.
• The Bengal Sati Regulation Act, which was passed on December 4, 1829, put a stop to social problems like Sati. The British also partially dismantled the caste system.
• India was regarded as the "jewel in the crown of the British Empire" because of its ability to defend itself against foreign foes.
• As a result, the British provided protection against Afghanistan and Persia. France and other western nations were warned against getting too involved in India.
• Although originally advantageous, it ultimately turned out to be a drawback because it made India unduly dependent on the British.
Repercussions of British Dominance
• Indian industry was destroyed when Britain took over because the governments were forced to purchase goods from the British Isles rather than producing their own.
• This caused havoc in the local carpentry, metal, and fabric industries.
• It implied that seceding from Britain would be terrible for India's economy, effectively turning India into a virtual slave.
• Famines were caused by British incompetence because they gave cash crops a higher priority than the cultivation of foods to feed India's enormous population.
• They imported food from various parts of the empire to feed the inhabitants.
• This strategy, coupled with unequal food distribution, led to 24 famines between 1850 and 1899, which claimed millions of lives.
• The British understood that without splitting up great kingdoms into small, manageable sections, they would never be able to dominate a large country like India.
• Additionally, the British Empire made it a point to pay religious leaders to speak out against one another, which eventually harmed relations between faiths.
• The strained ties between India and Pakistan are directly attributable to this tactic.
• Britain plunders the Indian economy: It is thought that Britain stole trillions of dollars, partly as a result of the unscrupulous business practices of the East India Company.
• Due to these deeds, Indian industry was destroyed, and the money that was flowing through the Indian economy was transferred to London.
Conclusion
In modern usage, the term "India" referred to the area under British authority, which included both areas directly managed by the UK (known as British India) and areas ruled by native rulers but subject to British supremacy (known as princely states). The area was referred to as the "Indian Empire." The introduction of British rule in India led to major changes in the socioeconomic and political spheres of Indian society.